1. "Health Issues in the Global Semiconductor Industry", by Joseph LaDou, MD.
Dr. LaDou is the Editor in Chief of the International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, and the Director of the Occupational and Environmental Medicine Program at the University of California School of Medicine in San Francisco.
Abstract: The microelectronics industry began in the United States less than 50 years ago. It quickly spread to Japan and to a number of European countries and in recent years, to much of the remaining world. The experience of US manufacturers is that some serious occupational and environmental problems occur, in particular, with the production of semiconductor devices. But before the occupational and environmental problems were adequately addressed, the industry had migrated to many countries around the world, especially to East Asia and Southeast Asia. This paper summarizes the limited number of studies of the health of semiconductor workers conducted thus far in the United States. It is also a call for further research and for caution in the development of the microelectronics industry in areas of the world that lack sufficient regulation and enforcement of laws to protect workers from occupational hazards and the community from environmental hazards that have occurred wherever microelectronics companies have been established.(Annals Academy of Medicine, Singapore, Vol 23, No. 5, September 1994.

2. "The International Electronics Industry", by Joseph LaDou, MD, Timothy Rohm, PhD, CIH
Abstract:High-technology microelectronics has a major presence in countries such as China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia, now the third-largest manufacturer of semiconductor chips. The migration of European, Japanese and American companies accommodates regional markets. Low wage rates and limited enforcement of environmental regulations in developing countries also serve as incentives for the dramatic global migration of this industry. The manufacture of microelectronics products is accompanied by a high incidence of occupational illnesses, which may reflect the widespread use of toxic materials. Metals, photoactive chemicals, solvents, acids, and toxic gases are used in a wide variety of combinations and workplace settings. The industry also presents problems of radiation exposure and various occupational stressors, including some unresolved ergonomic issues. The fast-paced changes of technology underlying this industry, as well as the stringent security precautions have added to the difficulty of instituting proper health and safety measures.
Epidemiologic studies reveal an alarming increase in spontaneous abortions among cleanroom manufacturing workers; no definitive study has yet identified its cause. Other health issues, including occupational cancer, are yet to be studied. The microelectronics industry is a good example of an industry that is exported to many areas of the world before health and safety problems are properly addressed and resolved. (From International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, Vol. 4 No 1., Jan-Mar 1998.

3. "Semiconductor Workers Face Unique Health Risk in Manufacturing Sector", by C.L. Fraust, PhD,
Semiconductor device manufacturing requires a unique, highly controlled environment. Particulate levels must be minimized, humidity and temperature closely regulated and lighting controlled to prevent pre-exposure of light sensitive photoresists. (From Occupational Health and Safety, October 1987.

4. "Semiconductor Manufacturing: An Introduction to Processes and Hazards", by Peter Wald, MD and Jeffrey R. Jones, MS, MPH
Abstract: Recent studies suggest semiconductor workers have an increased incidence of work-related illness. Semiconductor manufacturing is a chemically intensive industry involving many potentially hazardous operations. As this industry moves into new geographic areas, health care professionals will be asked to evaluate medical or workplace conditions associated with unfamiliar and complex production processes. This paper provides an overview of semiconductor manufacturing processes for these health practitioners. each step of device fabrication is detailed with its attendant chemical and physical hazards. Broader concepts of industrial control technology, clean room ventilation, and ergonomics are explained. The hazards are tabulated to allow rapid assessment of the risks inherent to each processing step. References have been chosen to guide the reader to more in-depth information. (From American Journal of Industrial Medicine 11:203-221 (1987).

5.Semiconductor Manufacturing Hazards, by Myron Harrison, MD MPH Abstract: Potential health risks in semiconductor manufacturing occur from the manufacture of substrates through the completed chip. Three broad areas of concern for occupational exposures are: the clean room environment, the manufacturing process and tools, and selected chemicals used.
The complex nature of this highly competitive industry and rapid changes in technology and materials pose obstacles to the delineation of health risks. Knowledge of these processes coupled with an understanding of the inherent toxicology of the materials enables a health professional to make informed assessments of health risks in the semiconductor industry.(In Sullivan JB, Krieger GR (eds.) Clinical Principles of Environmental Health, Baltimore MD, Williams and Wilkins, 1992, ch. 43)

6."The Not-So Clean Business of Making Chips", By Dr. Joseph LaDou,
The "clean" image of he microelectronics industry is misleading. The huge quantities of toxic materials used to make semiconductor chips pose far greater health problems than previously thought. (From Technology Review, May-June, 1984)

7. Occupational Medicine--The Microelectronics Industry--Table of Contents and Abstracts
A. Health Issues in the Microelectronics Industry and The Chemical Nature of the Microelectronics Industry
B. Health Hazards of Solvents,Toxic Gases used in the Microelectronics Industry, Carcinogens and Cancer Risks in the Microelectronics Industry, Reproductive Hazards in the Microelectronics Industry
C.Environmental Health Aspects of the Microelectronics Industry (From State of the Art Reviews, Occupational Medicine. The Microelectronics Industry, Joseph LaDou, MD, Guest Editor. Vol 1, Number 1, January-March 1986

8. Cancer chemicals in electronics manufacturing.
This is a partial list of chemicals used or occurring in electronics manufacturing which, according to medical experts are known or suspected to cause cancer in humans or animals. Source: Health Hazards in Electronics, a handbook published by the Asia Monitor Resource Center in Hong Kong.

9. Suspected carcinogenic chemicals used in the electronics industry
Suspected means there is some evidence of cancer in animals but not enough for conclusive proof, or that since there is some evidence of cancer in animals we must suspect there is also a cancer risk for humans. (Source: Health Hazards in Electronics, published by the Asia Monitor Resource Center.)

Return to Health Hazards Exposed